Second Temple Judaism

Joseph and Aseneth

Joseph and Aseneth is a “romance,” telling the story of Joseph’s marriage to Aseneth, the daughter of Potiphera (called Pentepheres in this book.)  Like the book of Jubilees, the book attempts to answer a question which many people have about the story of Joseph. If Joseph was such a godly Jew, how could he marry an Egyptian, especially one whose father is a pagan priest? The story answers the question, “How did Joseph get his wife?”

Joseph and Aseneth

The Joseph and Aseneth was written in Greek and seems to have been a Jewish book, although there are Christian interpolations (possibly the honeycomb sequence, for example, which mentions the “bread of life.”) The book may have been known in the fourth century A.D. since it is mentioned in the Pilgrimage of Etheria. This book is a list of “holy sites” written about A.D. 382. The reference to Asenath’s house is found in a fragment of the work in Peter the Deacon of Monte Cassino’s On the Holy Places, which is dated to about A.D. 1137.

It is likely Joseph and Aseneth uses the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament), implying the book was written no earlier than 100 B.C. If the book was written in Alexandria (the scholarly consensus), then it is unlikely to have been written much after the Jewish revolt under Trajan, A.D. 115-117. A major argument in favor of Egypt is that Asenath is the heroine, the only convert to Judaism from Egypt.  If it was from Palestine, then Ruth or Rahab might have been better examples of pagan conversions (OTP 2:187-188).

This argument weakens if the book is an apologetic explaining why Joseph married an Egyptian, or an explanation of how Joseph married a gentile without punishment, aimed at Diaspora Jews tempted to marry gentiles. Like Reuben or Judah in Jubilees, the story may be intended to explain that just because Joseph “got away with it” does not mean you can!

The book can be divided into two parts. The first is the “romance” between Joseph and Asenath (chapters 1-21). This romance is more about repentance and gentile conversion than romantic love. From the perspective of the book, it is entirely possible for a gentile to truly convert to Judaism. Asenath is so thorough a convert she receives a heavenly visit which confirms her resolve.  In order to convert she must completely reject her former idolatrous ways, a point made several times in the book, including the eating of food associated with these idols. This may play into the background of the issue of eating meat sacrificed to idols which turns up at several points in the New Testament, especially in Pauline letters.

As Christianity spread into Gentile regions, the meal became a potential problem on two levels. Some Jews appear to have been more than uncomfortable eating with Gentiles, especially those that were not of the “God-Fearers.” A second and related reason was the potential for non-kosher foods to be eaten, included meats that had been sacrificed to idols.  To the Gentile, this was not a problem, since they never cared about it before Christ, and it isn’t really a problem after becoming a Christian for them. But to the Jew, this is a sin!  Such food is unclean so they could not eat it in good conscious.  The issue of table fellowship appears in Galatians 2:11-18. Peter had shared the table with Gentiles, but after a visit from “certain people from James” he withdrew from eating with Gentiles.  Asenath indicates that, at least for some Jews, the food laws were of critical importance for true conversion. Circumcision may be the primary “boundary marker” but it is obviously not an issue for Asenath.

The second part of the book concerns a plot by the son of the Pharaoh to kill his father to revenge his losing Asenath to Joseph. This plot goes wrong when Asenath is caught in the trap. The son of the Pharaoh is injured in the attack and dies soon after. This section has less to do with New Testament issues than the first, although there is a continuation of the theme that Asenath is more righteous than the (Jewish) sons of Bilah and Zilpah.

The Life of Adam and Eve

The Life of Adam and Eve is an expansion of the creation and fall narrative. It appears in two forms, a “Life” of Adam and an “apocalypse” of Adam. Both were likely written in Hebrew and translated into Greek and Latin. There are parallels to other pseudepigrapha (2 Enoch) and rabbinic traditions as well as Josephus (Antiquities 1.2.3). It is possible the book influenced the story told in Josephus or vice-versa, but it is almost impossible to who used whom. A range of dates from 100 B.C. to A.D. 200 is likely. The key evidence for the provenance of the book is the use of the mythical Lake of Acheron in 37:3. This is thought to be an indication the book came from Alexandria, where the Greek ideas might have been more current. OTP has printed the two works side-by-side so parallels may be studied.

The first eight chapters of the Life of Adam and Eve begin just after Adam and Eve are expelled from the garden. They have nothing to eat except what the animals have. They go nine days without eating and realize their need to repent. Adam fasts for forty days in repentance, Eve stands on a rock in the Tigris River up to her neck in silence for thirty-seven days. Adam does the same in the Jordan for forty days. When Adam does this all the living creatures surround him and the Jordan stands still.

Eighteen days later Satan comes to Even while she is in the river as an angel of light (ch. 9-11). He commands Eve out of the water and promises to take her someplace to eat. When Adam sees his wife with the Devil (again) he calls out to her and asks her what has happened to her repentance. Adam asks the Lord to remove his opponent far from him, and the devil immediately disappears. Adam “persisted” with his penitence in the Jordan.

Chapters 18-24 deal with the children of Adam and Eve. As she is giving birth, she is in terrible pain and cries out to God. Adam thinks she is struggling with the devil again and he prays for her. Twelve angels and “two excellencies” appear and stand on her right and left while she gives birth to Cain, who is described as “lustrous” at birth. When Abel is born, Eve has a vision of Cain’s murder. The parents resolve to keep the children far apart, which is why one was a shepherd and the other a farmer.

Adam tells his son Seth the story of how he was returned to Paradise in a vision (ch. 25-29). He is carried to heaven in a fiery chariot where he worships the Lord. Michael takes him by the hand and brings him to Paradise where he touches the waters of Paradise with a rod and freezes them.

Adam’s “testament” appears in Chapters 30-36. He gathers his family around him to give them a final charge. As in other testament literature, Adam gives a recount of his life, especially of the fall. Two angels were appointed to watch over them in the garden, but they ascended to heaven at the appointed hour of worship. It is at this time that Eve ate the forbidden fruit and cause God to be angry with them. God promises to bring upon their bodies seventy plagues and they will be racked with severe pains from the top of their heads to the nails of their feet. When Adam is in pain Eve asks for the pain to be transferred to her since it was she who sinned. Adam requests Seth and Eve go to Paradise and mourn for him, hoping that the Lord will allow them to take a little oil of life to anoint him with and relieve his pains.

That Eve is responsible for sin is found in several places in the pseudepigrapha and is quite the opposite of Romans 5 and 1 Corinthians 15 where Adam and Adam alone is blamed for sin. In the two places where Paul mentions Eve, however, she is not placed in a favorable light. In 2 Cor. 11:3 Eve is deceived by the devil’s cunning. In the very difficult passage in 2 Tim 2:13-15 Eve was deceived and became a sinner. The connection with “saved through childbirth” in 2:15 could be a reflection of Eve requesting Adam’s pain in this pseudepigraphal account. It is through her pain in childbirth that Eve atones for her part in the fall.

Image result for meme Adam blamed Eve

 

Chapters 37-44 is an odd sequence which occurs on the way to collect the oil of life. When a serpent attacks and bites Seth, Eve rebukes it because it dared to attack the image of God. The serpent responds to Eve in a human voice – the malice was directed at Eve because she ate the fruit of the tree. Seth rebukes the serpent and commands it to “stand back from the image of God.” The serpent obeys and they continue to paradise. They weep and lament, begging for the oil of life, but Michael appears and refuses to give it to them. No one may have it until the last days, he says. There is nothing left for Adam but to die. They do gather some herbs on the way home, probably to ease his pain. Seth returns to Adam and reports the attack to him. He blames Eve: all their children are affected by the “bite” of the serpent.

Adam dies six days later and for seven days the sun moon and stars were darkened as Seth and Eve mourned him (ch. 45-51:3). Michael appears and tells Seth to rise as he is about to be shown what the Lord God is arranging concerning Adam. In the last days, Adam will sit on the throne of the one who overthrew him (cf. the exaltation of Adam in Apocalypse of Abraham 13). Michael and Uriel instruct Seth on the proper burial of the dead. Before Eve dies six days later, she gathers her children (Seth and thirty brothers and thirty sisters). She commands them to make stone tablets and record on them the life of Adam and all which he said to them. The tablets must be stone so that if the Lord should judge through the flood they will endure. Seth makes these tablets

The tablets do in fact endure (51:3-9). They are seen by many but read by no one after the flood until the time of Solomon. The angel of the Lord appears to him and tells him how to read these stones. On these stones are the words of Enoch, the seventh from Adam, “behold the Lord will come in his holiness to pronounce judgment on all” (cf. Jude 14-16).

Christian Visions and the Ascension of Isaiah

Chapters 6-11 of Ascension of Isaiah are a Christian addition to the Martyrdom of Isaiah, usually called the “Visions of Isaiah.” Isaiah has a vision when he was in Jerusalem to see King Hezekiah. While he is surrounded by forty prophets (including Joel and Micah), he slips into some kind of trance. Some thought he was about to ascend, others that he was dead. He recovers and relates his vision to Hezekiah. In his vision, Isaiah was taken by the hand and escorted up into heaven by an angel. He passes through the firmament and then through the seven heavens. In chapter 9, Isaiah enters the seventh heaven, where he sees a wonderful light and innumerable angels. (See Emily J. Gathergood’s Ascension of Isaiah at North American Society for the Study of Christian Apocryphal Literature)

Ascension of Isaiah

Isaiah sees Abel and Enoch, which is not unexpected since this whole heavenly journey is remarkably similar to 1 Enoch. The saints are not wearing crowns, nor are they seated on thrones. They will not receive these things until after Christ descends in human form and is crucified. The resurrection is described as “plundering the angel (or prince) of death.” After the Lord ascends to heaven, the Old Testament saints will receive their crowns and thrones. The balance of the chapter is a series of worship scenes: the Lord (vv..27-32); the “angel of the Holy Spirit” (vv. 33-36) of God (vv. 37-42).

The lower heavens join in this worship (verses 1-6), and then Lord Christ (who is called Jesus) is called upon by the Father to descend to Sheol (but not Perdition) and be made into the likeness of those in the lower heavens. This he does, becoming “incarnate” for each of the five levels of heaven he enters.

The final chapter of the Christian Visions section recounts the virgin birth (11:1-16) and the infancy of the Lord (verses 17-18). The virgin birth is without pain (Mary does not cry out) and occurs after only two months of pregnancy.

Ascension of Isaiah 11: 9-13 Mary then looked with her eyes and saw a small infant, and she was astounded. 9 And after her astonishment had worn off, her womb was found as (it was) at first, before she had conceived. 10 And when her husband, Joseph, said to her, “What has made you astounded?” his eyes were opened, and he saw the infant and praised the Lord, because the Lord had come in his lot. 11 And a voice came to them, “Do not tell this vision to anyone.” 12 But the story about the infant was spread abroad in Bethlehem. 13 Some said, “The virgin Mary has given birth before she has been married two months.”

The vision skips quickly ahead to the crucifixion. The death of Jesus is blamed on the ruler of Sheol, who incited the children of Israel to crucify Jesus (11:19-21). There is a hint of “harrowing of hell” theology, Jesus “descended to the angel who (is) in Sheol.”

After the resurrection, Jesus ascends back to the seventh heaven, where he sits at the Father’s right hand and receives glory, with the angel of the Holy Spirit on the left hand. The book concludes with the angel returning Isaiah in the vision and his report to Hezekiah. The words of the vision were recorded, and Hezekiah was sworn to secrecy.

The Martyrdom of Isaiah

The first five chapters of The Martyrdom of Isaiah are a Jewish expansion of 2 Kings, detailing the death of Isaiah. Chapters 6-11 are a Christian work that details Isaiah’s ascension through the seven heavens. This section is akin to the apocalyptic literature of Enoch in that Isaiah’s soul is ushered through various stages of heaven. Each section is a composite of various sources. This complicates the dating of the book. The Jewish section was likely written in Hebrew and translated into Greek. Hebrews 11 appears to refer to the martyrdom of Isaiah (“some were sawn asunder”) or the same tradition that Isaiah the prophet was martyred by being sawn in half. This would imply a date before the late first century. (See Emily J. Gathergood’s Ascension of Isaiah at North American Society for the Study of Christian Apocryphal Literature)

Martyrdom of Isaiah

The story of Isaiah’s death at the hand of Manasseh is similar to Second Maccabees (the martyrdom of the seven brothers and Eleazar), so a date as early as the persecution of the Jews by Antiochus IV Epiphanies is possible. The Christian section is more difficult to date, although Jerome and Epiphanes seem to use the book, making a date earlier than the third century somewhat certain (OTP 2:149-150). Deciding when the two books were put together is even more difficult. Fragments of the work in Geek appear in the fifth-sixth century, as does a palimpsest in Latin from the same period.

The activities of demons are very important in the Martyrdom of Isaiah. It is the demon Sammael Milkira who causes Manasseh to go astray, and Beliar possesses him and prompts him to kill the prophet. Near the end of Hezekiah’s life he calls Manasseh, his only son, to give him a final charge (ch. 1). Isaiah the Prophet is also present as well as the prophet’s son, Josab (Shear-Jashub in Is. 7:3). He tells the boy the “words of righteousness” which he has seen, including eternal judgments, Gehenna, and the activities of demons (princes of this world.) There is an implication that Hezekiah has had visionary experiences himself, which his secretary recorded. Isaiah tells the king this speech will not affect Manasseh and that he will rebel against the word of the Lord.

The demon Sammael Milkira will indwell Manasseh. Beliar will also indwell Manasseh, leading many to desert the faith. Isaiah even predicts his own martyrdom. This creature was originally an archangel, but he enticed the serpent to tempt Eve. He is a Satan in Debarim Rabba 11 and the angel of death, Targum Jeremiah (OTP 2:157 note u). Sammael Milkira is mentioned in the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch 4:8 (he planted a vine in the garden to tempt Adam) and 9:7 (when he “took the serpent as a garment.”

All that Isaiah predicted happens (ch. 2). Manasseh does not obey his father, and he serves Satan instead. Witchcraft, magic, divination, auguries, fornication, adultery, and the persecution of the righteous all increase, so Isaiah and the rest of the prophets withdraw from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, then to a mountain in a desert place. There they eat nothing but bitter herbs for two years. There is a short story inserted at this point which seems to have little to do with the rest of the book other than to introduce a false prophet named Belkira. This man accused the prophet Micaiah who eventually martyred himself. Compare OTP 2:158 note o and 159 note b; the name in chapter two may not be the same as the name in chapter 3.

In chapter 3, Belkira, the false prophet, discovers Isaiah’s hiding place and accuses these prophets of prophesying against Israel and Judah (which is most likely true at this point!) The king is convinced, and Isaiah is arrested. Verses 13-31 are a Christian interpolation describing the death and resurrection of Christ, the descent of the Holy Spirit, and the spread of the gospel. Eventually, the church will abandon the teaching of the twelve apostles, and many wicked elders and shepherds will do wrong for their sheep.

Martyrdom of Isaiah

Chapter 4 seems it is from yet another source, likely Christian. The content seems to be based on either the Olivet Discourse or the book of Revelation. More likely, this chapter reflects the sort of Christian reflection on Daniel and Antiochus IV Epiphanies represented by these two Christian texts. Isaiah is speaking in the first person to Hezekiah and Josab about the return of Christ and associated apocalyptic judgments. After the twelve apostles plant the gospel throughout the world, Beliar will become a king. This king is a “murderer of his mother,” a stock description of Nero in other apocalyptic literature. People will sacrifice to this king and worship him. He will do miracles in every district and set up his image everywhere (the “abomination which causes desolation,” possibly emperor worship).

The duration of his reign will be three years, seven months, and twenty-seven days (or 1, 335 days total, cf. Dan. 12:12). After this time, “The Beloved” will speak from heaven and “reprove in anger the world.” All written in the prophets will be fulfilled. A list of the prophets is included in chapters 21-22. The Minor Prophets appear in the order of the LXX, and the “word of the righteous Joseph” are included. This may reference the Prayer of Joseph (OTP 2:699-714). This chapter is important because it shows an eschatological program outside of the biblical material used by at least some in the early church, which included the elements of the Olivet Discourse and Revelation.

Because of the vision, Beliar is enraged with Isaiah and prompts Manasseh to saw him in half (ch. 5). Belkira tries to get Isaiah to recant all which he has said about Manasseh, but of course, the prophet refuses and is killed. He “spoke with the Holy Spirit until he was sawed in two” (14).

Expansions on the Stories of Isaac and Jacob in Jubilees 24-38

Jubilees 24-27 detail Jacob’s stealth as he buys Esau’s birthright and his journey to Gerar. Like the similar Abraham story, the lie concerning his wife is omitted. There is a long section (24:14-26) given the locations of various wells dug by Jacob. Isaac curses the Philistines (24:27-33). This curse is “written on heavenly tablets” and all which he said became true (24:33). Rebecca speaks to Jacob concerning his wife (25:1-3). He is to marry a member of the family, not a Canaanite woman as Esau did (25:4-10). Jacob agrees with his mother, and she blesses him (25:11-22). The words of this blessing are because the “spirit of truth” descends upon her, inspiriting her to speak the blessing, which is not unlike the Abrahamic covenant.

The plot to steal Esau’s blessing is expanded in chapter 26. The blessing is expanded as well (vss. 22-24 are very much like the Abrahamic covenant). Esau resolves to kill Jacob after his father tells him there is nothing which can be done and he is bound to serve his brother. In Jubilees Isaac and Rebecca tell Jacob to flee to Haran (ch. 27). Isaac tells Rebecca not to worry about the boy since the Lord will protect him. Jacob’s dream at Bethel is similar to the biblical version, including Jacob’s oath to serve the Lord.  The story of Jacob’s desire to marry Rachel is nearly the same as Genesis 29, but our writer adds detail on the tradition of marrying the eldest daughter first. The rest of this chapter summarizes Jacob’s two marriages and the birth of his children. Jacob leaves the household of Laban (as in the biblical narrative). As he returns to Canaan he separates from Esau and takes care of his father Isaac at Hebron.

Jubilees 30 retells the story of Levi and Simeon seeking revenge for the rape of their sister (30:1-6, 24-25). Inserted into this story is a teaching section on the law against marrying outside of Israel (7-17). Breach of this law was the basis of Levi’s anger – marriage to a foreign woman is a defilement. Because of his zeal for keeping this law, Levi is appointed to the priesthood (an appointment which is written in the heavenly tablets.) This is an example of the writer placing a present historical reality (levitical priesthood) in the history of the patriarch. If the children of Israel break this commandment, it will be written in the heavenly tablets.

Isaac prepares to die in Jubilees 31, so there are several “blessings.” Jacob delivers two of his sons, Levi and Judah, who receive special blessings from their grandfather. This is significant since these sons and tribes will be associated with the priesthood and kingship later in the history of Israel, and at least in some streams of Judaism, with a coming messiah.

After the birth of his last son Jacob goes to Bethel and pays a tithe, as his grandfather Abraham did (ch. 32). For the writer of Jubilees, the law of the tithe is written on “heavenly tablets” and rooted in these patriarchal narratives. After giving the tithe Jacob intends to build a sanctuary at Bethel, but the Lord tells him not do in a vision. There is a heavenly, eternal sanctuary and no need for an earthly one. The Lord tells him he will die peacefully in Egypt. The chapter concludes with several death notices.

Reuben’s sin with Bilah is described in 33:1-9, giving the author an opportunity for a discussion of the law against incest (10-14). This sin is described as despicable and it pollutes the land. Reuben, however, is not killed for his sin. The writer therefore answers a possible objection by explaining that Reuben received forgiveness because the law had not yet been revealed to man at that time. In the law, however, incest is “written on heavenly tablets” and is therefore punishable by death. Moses is to make this very clear to the people – sexual sin is an “abomination” and results in a blemish and pollution in the land.

Jubilees 34:1-9 concludes the section on Jacob with his raid on the Amorites (not paralleled in Genesis), but it is reminiscent of Abraham’s rescue of Lot. The story of Joseph begins in 34:10-14 with the plot to sell him into slavery. A day of mourning was declared for Joseph, the tenth day of the seventh month, the day set aside in the Law for the Day of Atonement in Leviticus 16:29. This is another example of our author placing a well-known Jewish feast day in the patriarchal history.

Jubilees 35 is Rebecca’s final words to her sons. A “testament” from a woman is rare in this literature, (cf. Deborah in Pseudo-Philo 33.) The first speech is a prediction of her death while speaking to Jacob. He laughs at his mother’s words because she was still in perfect health (verse 7). Rebecca then intercedes with Isaac on behalf of Jacob. She believes that after she dies Esau will get his revenge on Jacob. Isaac reassures her this will not happen. In the final section Rebecca calls on Esau himself to not harm Jacob, and he swears he will not. On the last night of Rebecca’s life the two brothers eat and drink together as a demonstration of their reconciliation.

Isaac makes his own farewell speech (testament) in Jubilees 36. Jacob and Esau are called to his deathbed and gives them a moral exhortation to remember the Lord and the way their father Abraham walked. He makes them swear not to seek evil for each other, then divides the inheritance between them, giving Esau the larger share. Esau admits he sold his share to his brother, so Isaac blesses him. Jacob returns to Hebron to live, where we are told he worshiped the Lord with all of his heart according to the commands which were revealed. Leah dies soon after this (verses 21-24).

Chapter 37-38 answers a potential question in the patriarchal narrative – how could Esau have simply surrendered to Jacob? The peaceful resolution between Jacob and Esau does not last after the death of Isaac and Rebecca. Esau’s sons convince their father to attempt to take by force what Jacob stole, so he hires mercenaries and plans to make war against his brother. Esau’s army approaches Hebron, but Jacob attempts to convince his brother not to attack. After some fairly harsh words for his brother, Esau attacks, but is soundly defeated by Judah and his men. It is Jacob himself who shoots the arrow which kills his brother. The sons of Esau are forced to pay tribute to Jacob until the family moves into Egypt.