It is possible that the Book of 4 Maccabees represents the “fourth philosophy” mentioned by Josephus as a subgroup of Judaism in competition with the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. It has been thought that this “fourth philosophy” referred to the Zealots, but Richard Horsley’s work on first-century messianic movements has challenged this.
The fourth philosophy had several major teachings. First, a Jew should pay no taxes to Rome at all. Based on their interpretation of 2 Sam 24, paying taxes to a foreign power was considered equivalent to slavery (cf. Luke 20:20-26, the question concerning paying taxes to Caesar may reflect the teaching of the fourth philosophy).
Second, Israel should be a theocracy and not be ruled by any foreign power. To submit to foreign rule is equivalent to idolatry and is a breach of the First Commandment. God will work through faithful people if they actively resist their oppressors.
Third, if Israel actively resists, God will establish his kingdom on Earth. The resistance that the fourth philosophy taught was not armed rebellion (as with the Zealots), but rather a commitment to obedience to the Torah and a willingness to be martyrs. The fourth philosophy was, therefore, a martyrdom movement.
This description is compatible with the teaching of 4 Maccabees, especially in 10:18-21 (cf., 9:24; 11:3; 11:22-23).
4 Maccabees 10:18–21 (NRSV) But he said, “Even if you remove my organ of speech, God hears also those who are mute. 19 See, here is my tongue; cut it off, for in spite of this you will not make our reason speechless. 20 Gladly, for the sake of God, we let our bodily members be mutilated. 21 God will visit you swiftly, for you are cutting out a tongue that has been melodious with divine hymns.”
That a book like 4 Maccabees would continue to be read by the Christian church is quite understandable since the early church faced the same sorts of persecutions described in the book. The challenge to commitment to the word of God in the face of deadly persecution was attractive to the Christians facing Roman pressure to conform.
Bibliography: Richard Horsley and John S. Hanson, Bandits, Prophets, and Messiahs: Popular Movements at the Time of Jesus (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985), 190-237; W. J. Heard, “Revolutionary Movements” in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, edited by J. Green, S. McKnight and I. H. Marshall (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1992), 688-698.
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You claim that 4th Maccabees is at home in Joseophus’ articulation of the 4th philosophy. I think you gave good evidence but there is a missing piece that is not mentioned in anything you cited of 4th Maccabees. There is nothing about paying taxes (at least that I saw). Do all three parameters you gave have to be met before a document can be considered part of the 4th philosophy tradition? Any help their would be appreciated!
The issue of taxes is fascinating given the passage you cite in Luke. In the mind of many Jews, Jesus saying pay to Caesar what is his (pay your taxes) is the equivalent of saying be a slave to Caesar. Yet their is wisdom in what Jesus says. Based on several passages of the NT (Rom 13, 1 Pet 2:13-17, etc) the Christian movement was a movement that tried not to ruffle political feathers when possible. Paul tells us to be at peace with all, which you cannot do if you will not pay your taxes to the governing authority.
Further, Christians (I think) should disagree with any Christian application of your second point. It is clear from the NT that the church was never envisioned as theocratic like Israel. Unfortunately, their are many theologies and attempts to make a Christian theocracy, both in the past and present. In this way though, we are not to be like Israel. We see from the history how disastrous that can be.
Finally, the Christian movement has rejected the third point you made. This is because, in the NT, Jesus is the kingdom of God established on earth (Luke 19:21). It is also a future rule of God (Daniel 2:44). Thus, passive resistance ushering in the kingdom seems a bit foreign to the NT. I would love to hear your thoughts on this!
You are right, 4 Maccabees is not a perfect fit for the Fourth Philosophy (taxes being the big missing point). However, Josephus’s description might be a “catch all” category,. I doubt there was any group that considered itself a fourth philosophy (in contrast to Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes).
For NT Passive resistance (and martyrdom), I was thinking about Revelation. In Revelation many people resist and die (are beheaded for not taking the mark of the beast, etc.) There is nothing in the book that suggests armed rebellion against the kingdom of the beast (destroying imperial cult shrines, etc.). Even Paul (in Romans 13) advised obedience to the powers that be rather than antagonism or rebellion. Maybe NOT telling Christians to free their slaves could fall into that category.